Important information about this guide:
1. Paintings are listed by gallery in chronological order.
2. Use the identification plates by each painting for information about the artist's home, media, and date.
3. Some pictures may not be on display.
4. Other paintings in the collection are referenced in parenthesis ( ).

Comments welcome: sas175@juno.com

This guide was written for all ages and interests. It is a work in progress and routinely updated.

GALLERY 3 The Renaissance Outside Italy

Jesus Christ Appearing to Mary Magdalene, Early 15th Century, Anonymous
-Known as 'Nolo Me Tangere' (Touch me Not).
-According to the Gospels, John describes how Mary Magdalene came to Christ's tomb in the early hours of the morning. She found the tomb empty; His body had risen. She stood by the tomb weeping. Mary turned round and saw Jesus. She first mistook Him as a gardener. Jesus spoke her name, "Mary". "Teacher" she said. Jesus said, "Do not touch me, for I have not yet ascended to the Father...". Christ's hand gesture helps persuade Mary to stay away.
-Christ holds a crosier, symbol of the church. Attached to the crosier is a banner with a Red Cross, sign of the resurrection. Mary Magdalene is identified by the symbol of a jar (which sits in front of her).
-For more on the life of Mary Magdalene, see 'The Last Communion of Mary Magdalene' and 'Mary Magdalene' by Pieter Coecke van Aelst, both in Gallery 3.
Resurrection, Early 15th Century, Anonymous
-The resurrection of Christ occurred on the third day after his crucifixion. The Gospel's accounts of that day vary. Though the church never officially recognized one account, artist's tried to satisfy both the church and their patron.
Matthew: An angel of the lord descended and rolled back the stone (upper left).
Mark: The stone was rolled back. Mary Magdalene and the Virgin Mary encountered a man in white (not shown).
Luke: Mary Magdalene and the Virgin Mary met two men. One of the men told them of Christ's deliverance (not shown).
John: The stone was removed (shown); Mary and two disciples discovered the tomb empty and assumed Christ had risen (not shown).
-Roman soldiers guarding the stone casket had fallen asleep and did not witness Christ's resurrection.
-In many versions of the resurrection, Christ is often seen holding a banner with a Red Cross, sign of the resurrection.
-This composition was an early attempt at perspective. The artist tried, but failed, to align the coffin to its vanishing points and properly proportion and foreshorten the Roman guards.
St. Catherine of Alexandria, ca. 1460, Friedrich Pacher (1435 - 1508)
-Saint Catherine was born into royalty; represented by her crown. When she saw Christians forced to offer sacrifice and worship idols, she grieved. She pleaded with Emperor Maxentius to allow Christians to worship the word of Christ. Maxentius admired her intelligence and was struck by her beauty, but refused to grant Catherine's plea. She persisted to defend her beliefs. Maxentius ordered a group of philosophers to persuade her to change her mind. Catherine was not persuaded. In fact, she convinced the philosophers to convert to Christianity. Maxentius was so upset, he put the group of philosophers to death. Catherine was confined without food for twelve days. She survived. Maxentius built four spiked wheels (one seen at left) to torture her, but they were destroyed by an angel. Catherine was sentenced to death and beheaded with a sword, held in her left hand. She died a virgin martyr.
-Saint Catherine is the patron saint of education. She is remembered as a very learned woman and is sometimes seen holding a book as a symbol of education.
Adoration of the Magi, 1464, Rodrigo De Osona, the Elder
-According to the Gospels, Matthew describes the Magi as three wise men who arrived from the East in search of 'He who has been born King of the Jews ...and are come to adore Him.' They followed a bright star to seek the child and offer gifts of gold and spices. King Herod, ruler of Judea, feared the child would be a threat to his power and ordered the Magi to bring news of the birth. The Magi were warned in a dream of Herod's evil intent and fled. The day the Magi adored Jesus was the date on which four miracles are remembered, also known as the Epiphany.
-The three Magi wear eastern clothing. The eldest Magi kneels; the African Magi and the youngest Magi stand by.
-Kneeling in the lower right corner is the donor. Doners financed the artist and were often included in the picture.
-It is interesting to compare this version, which takes place at night, with the version by Bartolomeo di Giovanni (gallery 4), which occurs during the day. Also, compared to the 'Nativity' by the Master of Retable of Reyes Catolicas (also gallery 3), note the difference in the manger. This one is built of stone; the other is of wood. In both pictures, perspective, proportion, and scale had not been perfected.
The Annunciation, Late 15th Century, Master of the Retable of the Reyes Catolicos
-The Gospel According to Luke describes how Archangel Gabriel, God's messenger, (left, in white) announced to the Virgin Mary that she would bear a child. Gabriel said 'The Lord is with you' (the words are shown in Latin from Gabriel's mouth). A written response on the hem of the Virgin's cloak reads 'I am the maid of the Lord." God (upper left) delivers the Child Jesus (holding a cross) with the Holy Spirit (the white dove). The delivery is made on golden rays. The three form the Trinity. The Trinity (God the father, Jesus the son, and the Holy Spirit) is symbolized by groups of three: the three Gothic arches that form the top of the frame, the three flowerpots, and the three lilies (which also symbolize the Virgin Mary's purity).
-Luke also wrote that the Annunciation occurred in the sixth month - June, which would put the birth of Jesus nine months later, in March, the month Christians originally celebrated Christmas. The sunny landscape and the flowers on the windowsill confirm a summer setting.
-In the 15th Century, artists worked to make settings more realistic by improving perspective and scale. Realism was intended to meld a closer relationship between the viewer and the picture by depicting familiar settings, form and space.
-Spain ruled over the Netherlands and the influence of northern realism is clearly seen. The northern hairstyle of a plucked receding forehead was popular in Spain.
Nativity, ca. 1475 - 1500, Master of Retable of Reyes Catolicos
-The Gospel According to Luke describes how Mary went to a manger to give birth because there was no place for them at the inn. Because Luke never described the manger, artists have exaggerated the event by turning the scene into an extravagant ceremony. Many artists usually included an ox and an ass (left) to reinforce a manger-like setting.
-In this version, Jesus lies on the ground surrounded by the Virgin Mary, Joseph (holding a rod and a lantern), a group of shepherds, and angels. The angels are grouped in threes. The number three is an attribute, or symbol, of the Trinity.
-Other sources believe the nativity took place in a cave, then moved to a manger.
-In this picture, the nativity occurs in the spring, not winter. Christmas was originally celebrated in the spring.
-In the background, we can see the Annunciation to the Shepherds.
Virgin & Child: 1475, Dieric Bouts (1415-75)
-This little gem is one of the most tender portraits of the Virgin and Child in existence. There are no symbols of martyrdom, as in many other Virgin and Child portraits. Other pictures by Bouts' contain stiff and lifeless figures; thus, making this portrait very special.
-Bouts is remembered for his attention to detail, not his ability to convey grace and form. Notice the detail of the embroidered background and the texture of the virgin's garments. Few of Bouts' works survived; he produced several life size religious paintings commissioned by Netherlandish municipalities and courts.
-Bouts painted two other portraits of the Virgin and Child, one in the National Gallery in London and the other in the Louvre in Paris.
The Death of the Virgin, late 15th Century, Anonymous
-The Virgin Mary lies on her deathbed surrounded by the twelve Apostles. Mary is still alive (her eyes are open) and she holds a candle, symbolic of Christian faith. St Peter wears bishop's robes (on Mary's left), holds a book, and conducts a service.
-Prior to the Renaissance, when individualism was discouraged, pictures of faces tended to look alike.
In art, individualism was represented by distinct facial features. In this picture, each apostle has a different face and is worthy of notice.
-In the 15th Century, it was common practice for painters not to sign their work, hence the anonymous credit. Artists were considered craftsmen and members of Guilds that controlled the quality and quantity of work.
-The composition is a daring attempt at perspective and space.
The Last Communion of Mary Magdalene, Late 15th Century, Master of the Coburg Roundels
-This scene was taken from The Golden Legend, a book describing the lives of the Saints.
-Mary Magdalene is seen here with Saint Maximin. According to legend, Christ's disciples dispersed from Judea after his crucifixion. Mary Magdalene and Saint Maximin were sent to sea and landed in southern France. There, she preached the word of Christ and Saint Maximin became the Bishop of Aix. Later, Mary decided to live in solitude and devote her life to prayer. A day before her death, she appeared before Saint Maximin, supported by angels (on Mary's right), to receive her final communion. (Communion honors the memory of Christ's Last Supper.)
-Typically, Mary Magdalene symbolizes repentance. According to the Gospel of John, when she met Christ, she was a sinner. She cried at His feet. Her tears fell on the feet of Christ. She wiped His feet with her hair and then she applied ointment to His feet from a jar of alabaster. Jesus forgave her sins. The jar became an attribute, or symbol, for Mary Magdalene.
-The 10 Nuns below - 6 of the Dominican Order (Black hoods) and 5 of the Franciscan Order - were probably the donors who financed the artist. They were included in the picture at a smaller scale out of respect to the main characters.
The Last Judgment, ca. 1500, Anonymous
-The New Testament refers to the Last Judgment as the Second Coming of Christ and His return to judge human charity. The Last Judgment is also a moral theme that suggests the innocent shall be rewarded and the guilty shall be punished. The centerpiece shows Christ in a mandorla, an almond shaped frame, supported by a group of angels. On His right are the innocent, symbolized by the purity of a lily. On His left are the guilty, symbolized by the sword. In the lower left, the Virgin Mary kneels; opposite her is John the Baptist. At the bottom of the picture, the dead are resurrected in order to be judged (lower center). Angels sound their horns to awaken the dead.
-The two top corner pieces show the twelve apostles. The Renaissance spirit of individuality allowed the artist to give a unique face to each apostle. In the lower left corner piece St. Peter greets the innocent as they enter heaven. Heaven is seen as a serene garden-like place. In the lower right corner piece, the guilty are seen entering Hell, a place full of demons and horror.
-This version of the Last Judgment is rare because it is a complete ensemble. In most works of this type, the group is usually separated and each picture is held by a different museum or art collector.
The Vision of St. Eustace, ca. 1500, anonymous
-Eustace was a Roman Officer in Trajan's Army. He was known then as Placidus. While hunting, he came upon a stag. He envisioned a holy cross between its antlers. Christ spoke through the stag's mouth. At first, Placidus was fearful, but soon the vision inspired him. Placidus went to a bishop and was baptized as Eustace.
-Like Job, his faith was tested. He endured hardship and tragedy. He became a Christian martyr when he and his family were burned alive.
-Saint Eustace is predominantly seen in French cathedrals.
-The story of Eustace gave artists the opportunity to paint an outdoor scene. Here the artist painted a landscaped background with wonderful humanlike expressions on the faces of the animals.
Lucretia, 1525, Joos Van Cleve (1485-1540)
-According to Livy's History of Rome, Lucretia was raped by the son of the tyrant Tarquin. Her shame led to suicide by the sword. Lucretia's death prompted Brutus, Tarquin's nephew, to revolt - forcing Tarquin to flee.
-Joos Van Cleve admired Italian art and painted other pictures depicting Roman history. He also painted religious pictures. He was a Master Artist in Antwerp and known for his realism. Other works by Van Cleve are in the Louvre, Paris and the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.
Christ Carrying the Cross, no date, Anonymous
-Christ's final journey before crucifixion is described in the gospels. The gospel's descriptions of this event vary. For example: Matthew wrote that Roman soldiers led Christ (shown on the right pulling the cross), and stripped Christ of his robe (Christ wears a robe in this version). Mark wrote that Simon was ordered by Roman soldiers to carry the cross. Luke wrote that Simon was seized to carry the cross behind Christ (Simon is shown on left assisting Christ) and was followed by a great multitude of people who expressed sadness. In this version we see a group of people lamenting and deriding. John wrote that Christ bore his own cross. Because of the variances, artists have depicted this event in different ways.
-Crucifixion was a Roman punishment. Often, the vertical post was already in place and only the horizontal post was carried by the accused.
-In the background, we see the crucifixion. In a narrative piece, such as this, artists often painted the same character more than once in order to tell a story. Here, the crucifixion is the final act.
-Note: The artist gave Christ six toes on His right foot.
The Adoration of the Shepherds, ca.1530, Anonymous
-The gospel according to Luke briefly describes how the local shepherds celebrated and honored the birth of Jesus. An angel of the Lord (top) announced the news of the birth to the shepherds. They subsequently gathered around the child to adore Him.
-If the date of 1530 is correct, this picture is a precursor of Baroque lighting and perspective. The Baroque period began in the early 1600s (Galleries 7, 14 & 15). Baroque artists practiced a dramatic lighting technique called tenebrism. Sharp contrasts between light and dark created a realistic illusion of depth and dimension.
Portrait of a Lady of the Saxon Court as Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 1537, attributed to Hans Cranach (1503 - 37)
-Judith was a Jewish Heroine and symbolic for overcoming struggle. She infiltrated an Assyrian camp and attracted their leader, Holefernes. Holefernes was planning to attack her tribe. One night when Holefernes became drunk, Judith cut his head off. Judith returned home a heroine.
-Cranach was a court painter to the Electors of Saxony. The attribution to Cranach cannot insure he painted this picture, only a good possibility. Cranach produced many portraits of contemporaries in the role of Mythological or Biblical characters.
The Lamentation, ca 1540, Ambrosius Benson ( ? - 1550)
-The Lamentation is the scene following Christ's descent from the cross. It depicts the mourning over Christ, also known as the Pieta. It is also one of the scenes of the Passion of Christ, which chronicles the suffering of Christ after his entry into Jerusalem.
-In this version, Christ is laid on a shroud and is surrounded by mourners. Joseph of Arimathaea holds Christ's shoulder. The Virgin Mary preys at Christ's side. Mary Magdalene kneels at the feet of Christ. An unknown mourner assists Mary Magdalene by holding her jar of oil used to anoint Christ's feet. John the Evangelist stands behind the Virgin Mary.
-Ambrosius Benson is known for his scenes of the Passions of Christ, religious allegories, and portraits of Saints. His figures are a bit stiff, though he was able to translate emotion by their facial expressions. In this picture, Benson's dark sky and somber background best express the gloom of the scene.
Virgin and Child Enthroned with Angels, 15th - 16th Century, Master of the St. Lucy Legend
-There are thousands of versions of the Virgin and child. It is fun and interesting to look for differences and similarities. In this version, the scene takes place out of doors. In the background, a magnificent landscape is divided by a river. On the left is a natural setting, on the right man-made structures dominate. Two angels balance the composition. One angel holds a bible and the virgin reads it. Another angel hands a rose to Jesus. The rose is a symbol of the blood of Christ foretelling his martyrdom. Jesus holds an apple in his right hand to symbolize knowledge and to affirm His position as redeemer. The baby Jesus has (somewhat) awkward adult facial features and stares into the distance, almost oblivious of His surrounding.
-Great attention was given to the perspective and scale of the throne, the detail of the virgins clothing, and the carpet of flowers. Here, as in many other Renaissance pictures, the composition is well balanced. The Virgin and child are seated along the center axis of the picture under an arch. The two angels wear blue robes that accentuate the traditional red dress of the Virgin. These stylistic components represent logic and reason, two principles forming the foundation of Renaissance arts and letters.
-Typical of the Renaissance style in Flanders are the oval faces, thin necks and little pointed chins.
Two Scenes from the Passion of Christ: The Flagellation and the Crowning of Thorns, early 16th Century, Master of Kappenberg
-The "Passion" series is thirty scenes depicting the suffering of Christ starting with His entry into Jerusalem and ending with the Descent of the Holy Spirit. The scenes are described in the gospels.
-In this picture, the two scenes are separated by a center column. Left of the column is the Flagellation. According to the gospels, Pontious Pilate, Governor of Judea, had Jesus flogged before His crucifixion. On the right, the floggers placed a crown of thorns on the head of Jesus and proclaimed Him King of the Jews. The crown of thorns was intended to mock Jesus. The floggers deride Jesus as a King in shackles. Pontious Pilate watches the crowning (right center) as does a Jewish onlooker (far right doorway) wearing a yellow turban. During the Renaissance, many Jews were required to wear yellow.
Triptych (right wing) Mary Magdelene (left wing) Joseph of Arimathaea, 16th Century, Pieter Coecke van Aelst (1502-50)
-A triptych is a set of three pictures. The outer pictures are called wings. The wings were hinged to a center panel and opened like doors. A triptych was usually placed on an altar.
-Mary Magdelene was a popular symbol of repentance. She was a repented sinner. She cried at the feet of Christ. Her tears fell on Christ's feet. She wiped his feet with her long hair, then anointed his feet with oil. The oil was stored in a jar, which she carried and became an attribute (a symbol) for Mary Magdalene. Christ forgave her. For more on Mary Magdalene, see 'The Last Communion", late 15th century, also in gallery 3.
-Joseph of Arimathaea was a wealthy disciple of Christ. He was allowed to take the body of Christ from the cross and lay Him in a tomb reserved for himself. He is typically seen with the nails of the cross and the crown of thorns worn by Jesus. The white sheet or shroud he carries covered Jesus in the tomb.
-Many Flemish artists, like van Aelst, were known for painting in a realist style.

GALLERY 4 The Renaissance in Italy
The Renaissance was a time of emerging individuality and humanism. The Catholic Church remained the largest buyer of art. Painting depicted the renewal of rationalism with balance and the acceptance of realism with perspective.

Saint Mary Magdalene, ca. 1320, Ugolino da Siena (1295 - 1339)
-This panel and the panel of Saint Louis (below) were part of a large altarpiece.
-Ugolino da Siena was a follower of Duccio, the leading painter in Siena, Italy during the late 13th century. Duccio preferred a linear style to define space and dimension. Ugolino's most famous work was done in Florence, Siena's rival. Ugolino painted an altarpiece for the famed Florentine church Santa Croce.
-The golden background was painted for two main reasons: 1) out of respect to the Saint, and 2) to reflect candlelight.
-The medium used here was tempera on panel. Tempera is a mixture of pigment and egg yolk. Pigment (color) was obtained from natural sources, like plants and minerals, then ground into a powder and mixed with egg yolk as a binding agent. Panels were usually made of poplar wood and prepared with several coats of filler and primer to give a smooth surface.
-For information on the life of Mary Magdalene, see Gallery 3, pictures by Pieter Cooke van Aelst and the Master of the Roundels.
Saint Louis of Toulouse, ca 1320, Ugolino da Siena (1295 - 1339)
-This panel and the Saint Mary Magdalene panel (above) were part of a large altarpiece.
-For information on the life of Ugolino da Siena, see Saint Mary Magdalene, above.
-Saint Louis (1274 - 97) was the son of Charles II, the Italian King of Naples and the great-nephew of Louis IX of France. St. Louis renounced the throne to become a Franciscan Friar. He is seen here wearing the traditional Franciscan robes and knotted belt. He is usually seen with a Fleur-de-Lys, the symbol of France, but here he carries a crosier topped with a decorative spiral. He died at the young age of 23 years.
-Sienese painters emphasized design over form, as seen by the miter hat with its complex folds and decorative band. They relied on line for the principle effect in painting. The emphasis on design resulted in a flat image.
A Crowned Virgin Martyr (Saint Catherine of Alexandria), ca. 1340, (attributed to) Bernardo Daddi (1290 - 1349)
-Saint Catherine is usually seen with a spiked wheel and a sword (See Gallery 3). The identity of this figure is uncertain; however, Saint Catherine was born into royalty and is commonly seen wearing a crown. She holds a palm leaf in her right hand, a symbol that foretells her martyrdom. The palm leaf was a traditional symbol for death because it was used during funeral services. The closed book in her left hand, like the palm leaf, is a symbol foretelling her martyrdom. The book may also symbolize St. Catherine's reputation as a very learned woman.
-This early portrait has many stylistic characteristics that originated in the Middle Ages. It has a flat appearance. There is very little indication of depth and space. The facial features are formulated, not individualized. Many saints were painted to look alike and could only be identified by their symbolic attributes (the palm leaf, crown, and book).
-This panel was likely part of a large altarpiece that included similar panels of other saints and religious figures.
-Bernardo Daddi was a Florentine and a follower of Giotto, one of the Renaissance's most innovative painters. Daddi did not create images as realistic as those painted by Giotto. However, Florentine painters, like Daddi, emphasized form over design, as seen by the subtle shading of the hands, face, and neck. Compared to painter Ugolino da Siena (above), Daddi's figures have more weight and dimension.
Madonna and Child with Saints, 1350 - 60, Master of S. Lucchese (active mid 14th Century)
-The plague of Europe, called the Black Death, occurred during the mid - 1300s killing thousands of Italians. Historians have mixed opinions about the influence of the plague on art and artists. Many believe artists returned to Gothic conservatism to atone for sins that were thought to have caused the plague.
-This version of the Madonna and child feature traits influenced by the plague. For example, the Madonna and Child appear to be placed on a decorative background. We are not sure if she is sitting on a chair or if she is floating by divine spirit. There is very little indication of her form. Her pose is traditional. Her face is a three - quarter portrait with her head tilted toward the child. The picture is balanced by an equal number of saints. Space and dimension are defined by the overlapping figures on each side of the Madonna; they appear to stand outside the frame. On the left (from front to back) stand St. John the Baptist, a local cleric, and Mary Magdalene. On the right, respectively are St. Peter, a local cleric, and a virgin martyr.
-Look closely, the child is holding a bird in His left hand. The bird symbolizes the soul that flies away after death; in this case, the resurrection.
-There are many versions of the Madonna and child. It is interesting to notice the way artists direct their eyes. Here the Madonna gazes toward the child and the child turns to look at her. In other versions, she may look out at us or stare into space. Part of what makes the Renaissance special is the individuality of each version.
-This was probably a center panel for a small portable triptych. Portable triptychs were popular during the 1300s and used in the home as devotional pieces.
The Crucifixion, ca. 1365, Luca di Tomme (active 1356-90)
-The Crucifixion is one in a series of pictures that chronicles the Passions of Christ.
-The Crucifixion is probably the most important image in Christianity. Painters have produced many versions of this event. Another version, also in gallery 4, is by Matteo di Giovanni, 1490, and is quite different than Tomme's. Both painters worked in Siena, Italy. However, Giovanni's version was painted over one hundred years after Tomme. Take a few minutes to compare the two.
-In this version, the cross is placed in the center of the picture. On Christ's right are his mourners; the Virgin Mary, in blue, swoons and is supported by two assistants. Mary Magdalene, in red, throws her hands up. Saint John the Evangelist folds his hands and preys. On Christ's far left, stand Roman soldiers except for the two men with halos. Wearing blue is Longinus (see Giovanni's version) and in red is Joseph of Arimathaea (see 'Joseph of Arimathaea' in gallery 3). It was customary to place the followers of Christ on his right and the non-believers to his left.
-This early version shows Christ's feet on a separate panel. Later versions show His ankles bound to the cross with one nail fastening both feet. This version does not show the two thieves crucified with Christ, nor does Christ wear a crown of thorns, as mentioned in the Gospels Matthew and Mark. The group of holy women on the far left is mentioned in the Gospels.
-Tomme painted this picture after the Black Death, a plague that killed thousands. Siena was spared the catastrophic effects of the Black Death, which wiped out much of Florence. Because of this, Sienese painters, like Luca, survived the plague and showed improvements in spatial relationships while still using a traditional gold background.
-The bright colors in this picture have aged well, especially the blue dress worn by the Virgin Mary. Blue was expensive to produce and for which many patrons had to pay a premium. Sienese artists, like Tomme, are known for their decorative style that included large areas of bright color.
Madonna Enthroned with Kneeling Dominican Monk, 14th - 15th Century, Lorenzo Veneziano (1357-?)
-This version of the Madonna and Child has Byzantine influences. Veneziano's home of Venice was a major trading partner with Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine art favored patterns and linear designs, as seen in the flowered dress worn by the Madonna.
-A Gothic influence also exists. The elaborate frame and the illusion of looking through a portal were traditional Gothic formulas.
-The goldfinch held by the Virgin, in her right hand, is a symbol of the resurrection. In ancient Greece and Rome, the finch represents the human soul that flies away after death. Here it foretells the Child's destiny of crucifixion and resurrection.
-The Dominican Monk was scaled down to respect the main characters - the Virgin Mary and child.
-Veneziano's composition creates an illusion of depth and dimension. The arms of the throne were angled toward a single vanishing point. The technique, called foreshortening, produces an illusion of three-dimensional forms.
-Veneziano was known most for his religious paintings.
Madonna and Child with Angels, 14th - 15th Century, Bicci di Lorenzo (1373-1452)
-In this version of the Madonna and Child, Renaissance symmetry is seen by the two angels on each side of the Madonna balancing the composition. The angels in the upper left and right corners wear the same colors and hold the virgin's cloth of honor. The two lower angels kneel and play the violin. The depiction of the kneeling angels is an early example of human form emerging behind the folds of clothing. A Gothic influence is seen in the rare full facial pose of the Virgin Mary, the neutral colored background, and the patterned frame.
-The Black Death of the 14th century was a plague striking many parts of Italy killing thousands. The plague was partly responsible for the religious images that dominated the arts. Many artists believed it would atone for the sins that were believed to have caused the plague.
-Bicci was born into a family of artists. He painted and sculpted. He was mainly employed in Florence decorating churches.
Saint John the Baptist and Saint Miniato, 14th - 15th Century, Bicci di Lorenzo (1373-1452)
-Saint John the Baptist (left) was a prophet and a preacher. He lived in the desert as a religious monk. Symbolic of his desert retreat, Saint John is typically seen holding a reed cross and wearing tattered furs. He heard the word of God and the word told him to preach a baptism of forgiveness of sin. He baptized Jesus and referred to Him as a sacrificial "lamb of God" (written on the scroll he carries).
-Saint Miniato (right) was the first Christian martyr of Florence (ca 250). The palm leaf is a symbol of martyrdom. According to legend, Saint Miniato was decapitated by Romans. The saint picked up the head and put it back in place, walked to a cave and died. Today, a church named for the saint stands on the sight of the cave.
-Bicci painted several altarpieces. This panel and the panel of Saint Anthony and Saint Stephen (below) were parts of a large altarpiece. Above Saints John and Miniato is the archangel Gabriel and above Saints Anthony and Stephen is the Virgin, forming a version of the Annunciation.
Saint Anthony and Saint Stephen, 14th - 15th Century, Bicci di Lorenzo (1373 - 1452)
-Saint Anthony (left) lived around the year 300. He gave his belongings to the poor and became a religious hermit. He was one on the first to practice poverty, after Saint John the Baptist. The crutch held in his right hand represents cures for the sick and help for the poor and crippled. It was said that Saint Anthony used pig fat as a medicine (pig in lower left). His picture was a mainstay of many homes in hope that it would bring good health to its occupants.
-Saint Stephen (right) was the first martyr to be stoned to death. He wears two stones on his head and holds a stone in his right hand. He also wears religious dress because he was chosen by the twelve apostles to spread the word of Christ, thus becoming one of the first deacons. Saint Stephen was stoned to death for emotional outbursts in support of Jesus Christ, as written in Acts.
-As mentioned in the previous piece by Bicci (above), this panel and the panel of Saints John and Miniato were originally part of a large altarpiece. Similarities include the green ground, pointed arches, two saints per panel, and termite damage.
Saint Paul, Early 15th Century, Lorenzo di Niccolo (1392-1411)
-Saint Paul was a Roman soldier named Saul before following the words of Christ. After witnessing the stoning of Saint Stephen, Paul converted. He set out to spread the word of Jesus in a series of journeys and letters. Paul is typically seen with a book, symbolizing his letters, and a sword, symbolizing his martyrdom. Paul was executed in Rome with a sword.
-Lorenzo di Niccolo died at the young age of 19 years. At a young age, Niccolo had gained exceptional technical skills. This portrait of Saint Paul is very naturalistic, particularly Niccolo's use of shade and color. The detail of the Paul's facial features, hands, and toes is extraordinary. The highly defined folds of Paul's robe allows his human figure to emerge, reinforcing the acceptance and practice of humanism in Florence during the early 1400s.
Madonna and Child, ca. 1400, Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422)
-The Madonna and Child are framed under a Gothic arch and sit on a very unusual red throne. It is also unusual to see the Virgin Mary wearing a crown. The crown refers to the Coronation of the Virgin, which is generally associated with the death of the virgin and her journey to heaven. Both Virgin Mary and Child look out at the viewer. The Black Plague of the 1300s killed thousands and was still fresh on the minds of many that believed it was an act of God. In response, Taddeo may have intended the Virgin Mary's stern stare a warning to the viewer not to question or abandon faith. The bird on the Child's shoulder symbolizes the soul's flight and the resurrection. Mary wears a star on her shoulder because her Hebrew name of Marium means star of the sea. The Child's hand grasps the breast of Mary for nourishment.
-Taddeo worked in Siena, Italy and had a large workshop that produced a lot of altarpieces. Sienese artists were known for curvilinear design, as seen in the red throne, the hem of the Madonna's cloak, and the intricate design of the fabric.
The Meeting of Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, ca. 1430, Fra Angelico (1417 - ?)
-Saint Francis and Saint Dominic were founders of the two largest orders of preachers - the Franciscans and the Dominicans. Saint Francis (right) and Saint Dominic shake hands. Saint Francis wears the traditional Franciscan brown robe with a knotted string belt. The star on Saint Dominic's forehead derives from two sources: one story describes how his brow had a glow like a star; another story describes how a star descended onto his forehead during his baptism.
-This scene was probably taken from The Golden Legend. Dominic, while in Rome waiting for approval of his Order, had a vision of Christ and Mother Mary. In the vision, Mary spoke of giving Jesus two servants to help spread His word. Christ requested to see these two servants. Mary presented Dominic and Francis. The following day, in church, Dominic recognized Francis from the vision and embraced.
-This picture was most likely part of a predella. A predella is a series of pictures at the bottom of an altarpiece that usually depicts the story of a saint's life.
-Fra Angelico was a member of the Dominican Order. He painted gentle religious themes that earned him the name Father Angel or Fra Angelico (His given name was Guido di Pietro). His compositions are unusually simple, yet he used the latest techniques of perspective. The receding columns in this picture give the illusion of depth and space. He was also a great colorist and used gradations of color to enhance the illusion of a three dimensional space. He was one of the first painters to use modern techniques and gain acceptance among church leaders. Fra Angelico was one in a generation of artists whose work imitated the natural world. It was the beginning of Realism.
Madonna and Child with Angels, 1430, Giovanni di Marco (1385 - 1437)
-In this version of the Madonna and Child with Angels, the composition has a symmetry that was common in many Renaissance paintings. Four angels, two on each side, gather around the Virgin Mary and child. The two lower angels wear a yellow dress and play music. The two upper angels wear blue and cross their arms to symbolize the crucifixion. The virgin sits on a marble pedestal; she and the Child make eye contact in a moment of tenderness. The child plays with the Virgin's scarf. Mary gently and expressively caresses the child's face. Giovanni's soft colors contribute to the comfort and ease of the scene.
The Annunciation, ca 1445-50, Master of the Lanckoronski Annunciation
-In the Gospel According to Luke, Archangel Gabriel, God's messenger, announced to the Virgin Mary that she would bear God's Child. Gabriel (left) swiftly enters the courtyard to make his announcement. This is one of the earliest pictures to portray the illusion of a body in movement. The courtyard has all the elements of Renaissance perspective. All of the lines accurately converge on a single vanishing point. Scale, however, is to be a bit off. Gabriel and the Virgin are too large relative to the architecture. The golden rays and the white dove on the left make this picture very special. Not only do they represent the Holy Spirit, but they also offer a single light source. For the first time we see a shadow behind the Virgin, a confirmation of the period's acceptance of humanity and realism in art. Artists of the Renaissance were able to take religious themes and put them in a setting familiar to contemporary society.
-The three lilies are an attribute, or symbol, of the Virgin's purity and the trinity.
Scene from the Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Debate with the Heretic, 1465, Bartolomeo degli Erri (1450 - ?)
-Saint Thomas Aquinas lived from 1225 to 1274. He was a Medieval Theologian and a Dominican known for his strong anti-heretical outlook. Here he stands in the center axis of the picture calm and rational. The heretic raises his hand in disgust. Thomas stands on the side of the altar, where the church is full of light. The heretic is crowded on the left where darkness is but a step away. These are subtle, yet powerful religious symbols.
-Saint Thomas Aquinas is also seen in the background kneeling at an altar in prayer.
-Scale, perspective, and proportion are accurately and skillfully portrayed. (For more Bartolomeo, see 'The Vision of Fra Paolino' below.)
Scene from the Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Vision of Fra Paolino, 1465, Bartolomeo degli Erri (1450 - ?)
-It is uncertain what service is occurring in this picture. Saint Thomas and Fra Paolino appear in the picture several times. It is, none the less, fascinating to observe the proceedings.
-The importance of this picture is the accuracy of scale, proportion, and perspective. The figures are sized correctly in relation to the architecture and to their placement in the picture. The illusion of depth is expertly depicted by a series of overlapping planes. In the plane closest to us, an elder stands with his right hand raised. The next plane contains two columns on the right and left, next is the bench upon which three men sit, then the box on the upper right and so on until we reach the rear wall with two windows.
Madonna and Child, 1481, Bartolommeo Vivarini (1432 - 1499)
-By the end of the 1400's, realism was the dominate style in western art. What makes this picture different from the flat images of the early Renaissance? The gradations of color from light to dark create the illusion of shade, depth and dimension. This technique, called chiaroscuro, started in the 1400's. The use of oil paint also added to its realism. Oil paint was easier to control and had a richer tone than tempera.
-In this version of the Madonna and Child, realism combined with a traditional pose produce a naturalistic image of the Virgin Mary and the Child Jesus. The child has infant-like features, unlike images prior to this one. Subtle symbols are still present foretelling His martyrdom: the child lies with His eyes closed on what appears to be a wooden member of a cross. The Virgin nods towards the Child in traditional fashion. The Cloth of Honor that hangs behind the Virgin no longer has Byzantine patterns. Instead it is a simple shade of red so more emphasis is placed on the main characters. The background is no longer a field of gold, but rather a natural setting of two windows and a row of trees.
-Vivarini's talent and technical achievement earned him a great number of commissions throughout Venice. Living and working in Venice had its advantages. It was closer to Constantinople, a great trading center; thus art supplies were easier to obtain. Also, Venice was a major trading partner with Northern European cities where oils and canvas were more commonly used.
The Legend of Brutus and Portia, ca. 1485, Jacopo del Sellaio (1441 - 1493)
-Portia was the wife of Marcus Brutus. Brutus conspired against Julius Caeser and was subsequently pursued by the Roman Army (left). Rather than give himself up to sure execution, Brutus committed suicide. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, Portia followed Brutus and committed suicide by eating hot coals (right).
-This picture is a narrative; it tells a story. The first part of the story is told on the left side and shows the pursuing army. The right portion has Portia swallowing burning coals. Portia is seen three times. From left to right, Portia (in light red) is amidst a group of consolers, then the group helps her, finally (far right) she swallows hot coals. The picture is also an allegory, a depiction of human character. Jacapo dramatically portrayed the loyalty Portia paid to her husband. Non-religious and humanistic themes were popular in the 15th and 16th century and a cornerstone of the Renaissance. These themes were inspired by the glory of ancient Rome and Roman history. This is an early attempt to depict facial expressions and Jacapo did a superb job of expressing emotion, particularly on the faces of Portia and her friends.
-Little has been written of Jacapo. He was probably influenced by Piero della Francesco, the master of narrative painting.
The Magi Before Herod, ca. 1490, Matteo di Giovanni (1435 - 1495)
-According to the Gospel of Matthew, the Magi were three wise men from the East in search of the king of the Jews (Jesus). The Magi followed a star to seek the newborn child. Herod was king of Judea when Jesus was born and felt threatened by Jesus. He ordered the Magi to bring news of the child. The Magi had a dream of Herod's evil intent and fled before reporting to Herod. Herod became upset and ordered his soldiers to kill hundreds of newborn boys, commonly known as the Massacre of the Innocents. Here the three magi and their entourage stand before Herod, who sits on a throne.
-Matteo worked in Siena. He is probably best known for painting the wings of a triptych, on which the center panel is the baptism of Jesus, by the famous Italian narrative painter Piero Della Francesca.
-This picture may have been part of a series on the life of Jesus that included the crucifixion (see below). Both were painted in the same year and are the same size.
The Crucifixion, ca. 1490, Matteo di Giovanni (1435 - 1495)
-The crucifixion is one of the most important events in Christianity. Painters have produced many versions of this event because each of the four Evangelists wrote different accounts of the crucifixion (See the version by Luca di Tomme, also in gallery 4):
-According to Matthew, Jesus was crucified for being accused of blasphemy. He was crucified on a hill called Golgotha (place of the skull). Soldiers drew lots for Christ's belongings (shown at right). Two thieves were crucified along side Christ. Attending the crucifixion were the Virgin Mary (in dark blue), Mary Magdalene (in red) and other women helpers
-According to Mark, the chief priests accused Christ of blasphemy. Pontius Pilate, Governor of Judea and under pressure from a riotous crowd, condemned Jesus to crucifixion despite any proven wrongdoing. Two robbers were crucified along side Jesus.
-According to Luke, Pontius Pilate discussed the charges against Jesus with Herod. Both found Jesus innocent of any charges. But, the chief priests and a large crowd wanted Jesus crucified. The robber on Christ's right repented (seen with a halo), the robber on His left railed Him.
-According to John, there is no mention of Barabus, a criminal who was set free at the cost of Jesus. Pontius Pilate did not want a problem with Rome, so he released Jesus to the Jews - who called for his crucifixion. The Virgin Mary was present at the crucifixion along with Mary's sister, the wife of Clopas, a disciple (John), and Mary Magdalene. John was the only evangelist that wrote of a Roman soldier who pierced the side of Jesus.
-The soldier, dressed in white, named Longinus, pierced Jesus' rib and, according to legend, was cured of blindness with the blood of the wound. The man in blue, with a red cape, is probably Joseph of Arimathaea (see Gallery 3).
The Adoration of the Magi, ca. 1490, Bartolomeo di Giovanni (active 1488 - 1500)
-Another version is in Gallery 3. Also see the 'Nativity' in Gallery 3.
-According to the Gospel of Matthew, the three Magi sought the king of the Jews (Jesus). The Magi were wise men from the East and followed a bright star to find the baby Jesus.
-In this version, the event takes place during the day. The manger is a Roman ruin, symbolic of the decline of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity. The three Magi were from Asia, Africa and Europe. They represented the worldly respect and acceptance of Christianity. The peacock on the upper right tends to dominate the picture. A peacock was once believed to live forever and represents Christ's resurrection and immortality. The round frame is a style called 'en tondo' (in a circle).
Madonna Enthroned with Saints and Angels, 1502, Raffaellino del Garbo (1466 - 1524)
-This is a wonderful piece of Renaissance art, with emphasis on 'art'. In the 1500s, pictures still contained icons of the past, but painters were evolving from craftsmen to artists. Guilds, that formerly regulated pictures and sculpture, no longer had full control over content and style. A new generation, including the likes of Michelangelo and Rafael, developed their own style and created a great demand for works of 'art'. The church was still the major patron of artists, but the rising middleclass and aristocracy also became purchasers of artwork.
-This is a version of a Sacred Conversation. The participants are not actually talking with each other; they are figures from different generations gathered together in heaven for symbolic reasons. The patron usually specified whom to include in a picture. Here, the Virgin Mary sits on a throne under a large scallop shell. She holds a lily in her left hand, a symbol of purity. She wears a gold star on her left shoulder because her Hebrew name, Marium, means star of the sea. Two angels stand on each side of Mary, balanced in pose and color, honoring the Virgin and Child. A balanced composition was important during the Renaissance because it was a sign of rationality, synonymous with Renaissance philosophy.
-Kneeling on the left is Saint Jerome, represented by his attributes - the lion, the red cardinal's hat, and the bible lying by his foot. According to a Roman legend, Jerome befriended a lion by removing a thorn from its paw. He was never a cardinal (the post was not established); however he assisted Pope
Damasus I, and held similar duties. He was known for his intellect and translated the Bible into Latin. This depiction of Jerome, partially clad with a stone in his right hand and a cross in his left hand, refers to his years of religious retreat in the desert. A stone was heated and pounded against his chest to rid him of sin and fevers.
-Kneeling on the right is Saint Bartholomew. He holds a knife in his right hand because according to legend, he was flayed (skinned to death) in India for trying to spread the word of Christ.
-The Virgin, Child and angels are painted with tenderness, yet Saint Bartholomew is a sad reminder of the child's fate.
-A picture this large was usually painted on canvas. However, this was painted on wood panel, making it very heavy and difficult to move. By the mid-1500s, oil on canvas became the medium of choice.
Madonna and Child, ca. 1504, Giovanni Battista Cima (1459 - 1517)
-The Virgin Mary and Child are portrayed with astounding realism. Cima combined rich color, texture, and variations of light to convey a realistic atmosphere. Notice the cottony clouds, the natural skin tones, the soft fabric, and the small landscape in the background. The Madonna and the child appear fascinated by something below and to the left, outside the picture frame. It is probable that this picture was intended to compliment another piece of art, whereby the Madonna and Child would be looking down on that object.
-Cima was a skillful and popular painter in Venice during the early 1500s. Venetian painters were famous for their use of lustrous color and natural light.

GALLERY 5 High Renaissance and Mannerism

Portrait of a Young Man with a Green Book, Early 16th Century, Anonymous
-In the 16th Century, most young men were uneducated and could not read. As books became available to the public, so emerged individual thought. This picture is a supportive response to the acceptance of humanism during the Renaissance. Humanism was a non-religious scholarly movement that started with the study of classic literature then expanded to include an interest in the pursuit of knowledge.
-This is a depiction of a young man with realistic features and proportions that mirror a true likeness. He looks away from his green book in dramatic pose and contemplation. His fine clothing shows that he was probably a member of the rising middle or upper class, wealthy enough to pay for an education, books, and to hire an artist to paint his portrait.
-The unknown painter energized the subject by using dramatic lighting and a slight head turn.
The Madonna and Child with Saint John the Baptist and Saint George, ca. 1514, Cesare da Sesto, known as Il Milanese (1477 - 1523)
-This version of the Madonna and Child contains a complex mix of religion, history and nature. Cesare placed the Madonna in an Earthly environment with a natural landscape. The religious figures include Saint John the Baptist (left), the Virgin Mary holding Baby Jesus, and Saint George (right). Cesare painted Saint John as a large muscular figure, despite his meager existence. Saint John wears unmatched furs and holds a reed cross to signify his hermetic life. He points at the child to focus our attention on the main character. The Virgin and Child sit on a marble ruin. The broken marble symbolizes the fall of the pagan Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity. Saint George, a warrior martyr, is intended to remind us of Christ's martyrdom. Saint George lived during the 3rd Century and became famous for slaying a dragon. Dragons symbolized evil. According to legend, he killed a dragon with a spear (seen in his right hand). Attached to the spear is a banner with a Red Cross, symbol of Christ's resurrection. Saint George was tortured and eventually beheaded because of his Christian beliefs. Above the Madonna, a child angel holds the cloth of honor that serves as a protective cover.
-In the upper right, a relief carving depicts the Judgment of Soloman, a precursor to the Last Judgment of Christ. The relief is a narrative that tells a story of two women, each claiming the same child. Soloman orders a soldier to cut the child in half and divide the two halves among the women unless one of them confesses and declares the true mother.
Bust of a Bearded Man, 1541, (attributed to) Lorenzo Lotto (1480-1556/7)
-This picture is "attributed to" Lorenzo Lotto, which means that the portrait was probably painted by Lotto, but here is no documented proof.
-Lotto possessed great technical skills. He gave the bearded man a very natural physical appearance. The skin tones are natural and the details of his facial features help convey a true likeness of a real man.
-Lotto was a complex character and painted curious portraits. The Renaissance portraitist experimented in portraying psychological characterizations. The identity of the bearded man is uncertain, as is the purpose of his stare (the bearded man stares to his left). Many of Lotto's portraits contain unusual objects and unexplainable facial expressions. This portrait is no exception.
-Lotto was born in Venice, but painted most of his work elsewhere. Lotto lived into his eighties. His career went through several different artistic phases. He was known as a loner and never followed or clung to one style.
Young Man from the Renialme Family, ca 1547-48, Tintoretto (1518-1594)
-Tintoretto spent most of his career in Venice, where he received commissions for portraits from upper class members of society and city politicians. In this portrait, the young man leans against a table in a posed position. His eyes are focused on us making it hard to determine his character. He appears proud of his family, because the family crest is prominently displayed in the upper right corner. Family portraits functioned mostly as a visual record of likeness.
-Tintoretto's portraits do not show the dramatic styling that made him famous as a Mannerist painter.
-For more Tintoretto, see 'Madonna and Child', 1570, also in gallery 5.
Portrait of a Friend of Titian, ca. 1550, Titian (1477 - 1576)
-During the Renaissance, Titian's home of Venice experienced peace and prosperity. Inhabitants of Venice hired painters to glorify the city's history and beauty. Economic prosperity helped increase the standard of living for the middle and upper class. They were able to afford pictures and portraits. Venetian painting is traditionally recognized for its rich color and texture. In this portrait, Titian does not use the vivid color for which he and Venice were known. However, Titian's delicacy of tone and texture is shown by the variety of shades of black in the gentleman's cape.
-Titian's friend holds a note that says Titian was his friend. By 1550, Titian became a very popular portraitist of the Venetian Court and Central and Northern Italy. He was an expert at portraying a sitter's likeness. His portraits became so popular they achieved reputations as works of art. Collectors purchased portraits of models unknown to the buyer. His popularity was so great that he created a workshop and hired assistants to produce copies, making his originals even more valuable.
Portrait of a Gentleman, ca. 1550, Giovanni Battista Moroni (1520 - 1578)
-It appears we have distracted the gentleman as he turns to confront us. Despite the distraction, a humanist theme prevails. Humanist themes expressed a quest for knowledge and individuality; books were the means to that quest.
-Upon our first impression, the pose of the Gentleman tends to override the valuation of the gentleman's character. But on closer inspection, the humanist theme prevails.
-Non-religious themes surfaced during the Renaissance. Secular portraits emerged as a result of wanting to revisit the humanism of ancient Greece civilization and the Roman Empire.
-It was written that Titian (also gallery 5) referred his Berganese patrons to Moroni. Moroni was a popular portraitist and was also known for religious pictures.
Venus and Cupid, ca 1559, School of Fontainebleau
-This is a great example of the Mannerist style that originated in Italy around 1510. Mannerism was a reaction against realism and a trend toward stylization. Mannerists were greatly influenced by Michelangelo's exaggerated treatment of figure painting. Mannerist painters were more interested in developing a style than simply copying nature.
-Italian painters were the first to exaggerate the human figure with unnatural poses and color, particularly, skin color. The influence of Italian Mannerist art in France started in the 1490s, when France invaded Italy and Francis I requested Italian artists to decorate his chateau in Fontainebleau.
-Here we see Venus, the goddess of love, in an unnatural, almost impossible double-jointed pose. Her enormous thigh is the focal point. Her son, cupid, is posed in an unusually twisted and turned position. The skin tones are pale. Many Mannerist painters believed large proportions and white skin were attractive and stylish.
The Triumph of Chastity, 16th Century, School of Fontainebleau
-This is another wonderful example of the Mannerist style. See Venus and Cupid, above.
-Chastity is seen here in five different poses as the mythical huntress Diana, who typically represents chastity (virginity). Chastity's main opposition is lust and love. Here, Chastity has triumphed over love, represented by the sleeping cupid. Cupid is surrounded and subdued by Diana in a variety of unusual and awkward poses. The scene is a congested web of figures, typical of Mannerist paintings. The tension of the twisting and turning Dianas is slightly relieved by the view through a doorway (left) of a landscape and other outdoor activity.
Madonna and Child, 1570, Tintoretto (1518 - 1594)
-Tintoretto marks the end of the High Renaissance and the beginning of Mannerism. Mannerism was a trend toward stylization and a reaction against realism. Tintoretto worked during the height of the Renaissance and was influenced by the monumental figures of Michelangelo and the colors of Titian. His mannerisms could be found in his biblical scenes (including this one). He clothed his figures in contemporary garb to develop a familiarity between the viewer and the picture. The mannerisms in this picture also include pale skin tones, exaggerated thick limbs, a theatrical setting, and an uncertain light source. Mannerists considered it stylish to idealize their figures with white skin and large proportions.
-In this version of the Madonna and Child, Mary leans over the child and seems to tease Him with a piece of fabric, symbolizing the shroud that will eventually cover the dead Christ. The baby appears limp and lifeless anticipating the Lamentation (also called the Pieta), when Mary mourns over the dead body of Christ.
-The scene occurs in a manger-like setting, but there is an uncertainty of the location or its significance. It is an intimate scene between the mother and child. There are no saints or angels, traditionally present in this theme. We are also unsure if the sun is setting on the Roman Empire or rising on a new Christian era. All of these suppositions are fun to discuss, as Mannerist paintings present many uncertainties.
Elijah Fed by the Ravens, ca. 1590, Paulo Fiammingolor (1540 - 1596)
-According to Kings 1, during the early years of Israel and Judah, Ahab, the king of Israel, sinned. In response, the prophet Elijah warned him of a great drought. Then the Lord ordered Elijah to travel east to the brook Cherith for his drinking water. The Lord also commanded ravens to bring Elijah food. Ahab followed the God of Baal; Elijah was a follower of the God of the Jews. A contest was held on Mount Carmel, pitting Elijah's faith against Ahab's. Elijah won.
-Fiammingo was a common name given to Flemish painters by Italians. Paulo Franceschi, the artist's given name, was born in Antwerp and traveled to Venice, where he settled. He studied Tintoretto's work and also painted landscapes and historical pictures.
-The influence of the mannerists is seen in the unusual green and brown tonality of this picture.
Saint Francis Venerating the Crucifix, 1595, El Greco (1541 - 1614)
-El Greco painted over 50 pictures of Saint Francis. Saint Francis was the founder of the Franciscan Order of Friars. According to legend, he had a vision of Christ and subsequently received the scars of the stigmata. The scars were similar to those Christ received on the cross (scars from the nails through His hands and feet and a laceration on His chest). In this picture, a scare is detectable on Francis' left hand. Saint Francis wore the traditional Franciscan robes with a knotted belt. The knots stood for the three Franciscan beliefs: Chastity, poverty, and obedience. Francis kneels in front of a crucifix. The skull supporting the Crucifix was a reminder of human mortality and death. Mortality was commonly symbolized in pictures during the time of the counter-reformation.
-In the 1600s, the Protestant Reformation was a threat to the Catholic Church. The Protestant movement questioned many of the rules enforced by the Pope. Reformers did not accept the idea of saints as mediators between mortals and God. Pictures of the saints, like this one, were commissioned by the Catholic Church to counter the Reformation and to reinforce the significance of their suffering and devotion. Here, Saint Francis is meditating death, symbolized by the skull and the crucifix. The leaders of Catholic Church believed they were the only ones who could properly administer the last rights into heaven and assure immortality (symbolized by the ivy).
-El Greco's mannerist style is depicted by the elongated fingers of Saint Francis and the elongated body of Christ on the crucifix. The hands of Saint Francis are the focal point of the picture. His hands are so expressive, they alone convey a message of devotion.
-For more El Greco, see 'Saint John the Baptist', 1600, below.
Saint John the Baptist, ca. 1600, El Greco (1541 - 1614)
-Saint John was an apocalyptic preacher, who believed God told him to preach forgiveness. His preaching included a baptism intended to cleanse the soul.
-Saint John the Baptist is typically painted wearing furs and holding a reed cross, symbolic of his life as a desert ascetic (one who lives a simple life for religious reasons). Saint John baptized Jesus. He is usually accompanied by a lamb (lower right) because he referred to Jesus as a sacrificial 'Lamb of God' (written on the banner on lower right) foretelling his martyrdom. The Spanish castle in the background was probably added at the request of the patron (the buyer).
-El Greco (The Greek) was born on the Greek Island of Crete. He trained in Venice, where he studied the coloring of Titian and Tintoretto. He then moved to Rome and studied the figures of Michelangelo. El Greco believed Spain offered opportunity and traveled to Madrid. Spain was the world's economic and military power and King Phillip II was the wealthiest leader in Europe. Phillip disliked El Greco's Mannerist style, so El Greco moved to Toledo where he obtained work from the church.
-Mannerism emerged as a reaction against Realism. Mannerists believed that style was as important as content. They were also influenced by Michalangelo's expressive figure painting. El Greco used distorted forms and unnatural color for mood and emotion. The spectacular cloud formations add to the drama and intensity. For the first time, detectable brush strokes were used as a stylistic statement.
-For more El Greco, see 'Saint Francis Venerating the Crucifix', 1595, above.

GALLERY 6 1600s: The Baroque Period in France and Italy
-In the early 1600s, painters reacted against Mannerism. A Classical revival emerged. Mythological subjects became popular. New secular subjects appeared - Landscape, still life, and genre (scenes of daily life). A diversity of styles arose.
-Dramatic light effects were used to create illusions of reality. Movement was depicted by the use of diagonals. Heightened emotions were portrayed with calculated intentions.

Adoration of the Golden Calf, 16th - 17th Century, (copy after) Nicolas Poussin (1594 - 1665)
-According to the Book of Exodus, while Moses was receiving the Ten Commandments, the people asked his brother, Aaron, to melt down their jewelry and construct a Golden Calf for idol worship. Moses (standing in the background) disapproved of idol worship and instead believed in the word of God.
-Poussin produced a series on the life of Moses. This picture, however, has not been authenticated as an original Poussin.
-Poussin was one of the main proponents of the classic revival in the 1600s. He believed in maintaining tradition with the ancient Greeks and Romans, the source of western art. He used Greek statues as models to depict ideal form. He rejected decorative trends. His work was built on orderly and systematic theory rather than emotional response. He wanted to control nature and define beauty through empirical methods.
-The figures in this picture are wearing classical attire and the group is painted in the style of an ancient bas-relief, a shallow surface carving.
Old Woman & Old Man, ca 1618 - 19, Georges de La Tour (1593 - 1652)
-It is uncertain if these two portraits are of husband and wife or two actors from a stage play. The poses of the Old Woman and Old Man combined with the bright frontal lighting has led some experts to believe these figures were on stage.
-La Tour was a master of light and texture - his rendering of the old woman's dress against a strong light is extraordinary.
-There are less than 50 known works by La Tour. Due to religious wars, caused in part by the Reformation, his studio and many paintings were destroyed. He is famous for 'nocturn' paintings, scenes taking place at night, particularly candle-lit scenes that contain sharp contrasts of light and dark. Tenebrism is the term that describes that style of painting. The Italian painter Caravaggio popularized the tenebrist style. La Tour spent six years in Italy, where he studied Caravaggio's work.
-La Tour's genre pictures (those of everyday life) were the start of a trend toward realism and non-religious images. They are the earliest examples of realist genre since the fall of the Roman Empire. Realists rejected the style of the Mannerists as false (see gallery 5 for Mannerist paintings).
Saint Jerome in His Study, 1620 - 30, (studio of) Claude Vignon (1593 - 1670)
-Saint Jerome was known for his intellect. He translated the bible into Latin, as seen here. He is commonly known for befriending a lion by removing a thorn from its paw. Saint Jerome was typically painted with a red cardinal's hat. Although he was not a cardinal (the post did not exist), he assisted Pope Damasus I by performing duties similar to a cardinal. (See Gallery 4 for another picture of Saint Jerome.)
-In the 1600s, Paris developed into a metropolis and an art center. Vignon studied in Paris, but was influenced by the Italian Mannerists and Chiaroscurists. Chiaroscuro is the technique of using gradations of shades to enhance realism. The Mannerist attributes in this picture include uncommon combination of colors, the visible brush strokes, and unnatural proportions.
The Holy Family with the Infant Saint John the Baptist, 1626, Simon Vouet (1590 - 1649)
-According to the Gospels, Mathew describes how the Holy Family fled Judea upon King Herod's order to search for the child Jesus. They escaped to Egypt and stayed until Herod died, then moved to Nazareth, also home to John the Baptist. John is seen holding a lamb. A lamb is often seen with John. He called Jesus a sacrificial 'Lamb of God' (written on the scroll attached to the cross), in reference to His crucifixion. Joseph sits in the shadow of the house. Joseph never became an important icon like Mary, Jesus and John. Though he was the husband of Mary, he was not the father of Jesus. The broken column in the foreground symbolizes the end of the pagan Roman Empire and the beginning of the Christian era.
-This subject became popular after Leonardo and Raphael painted versions in the late 1500s. Vouet was in Italy when he painted this picture. He and Nicolas Poussin (also gallery 6) shared similar artistic goals. Both believed in classical idealism. Louis XIII requested their return, but Poussin remained in Italy. Vouet returned to France in 1625 and soon became very popular - in part because of Poussin's absence. Vouet was one of the first popular painters of the French Royal Court, before the emergence of Paris as Europe's art center and the establishment of the French Art Academy. After returning to Paris, his style changed and became somewhat decorative. His bright colors displeased the court, leading to the return of Poussin. Poussin stayed for only two years then returned to Italy. Vouet continued to paint for the king.
-Vouet was known for large and small decorative mythological and religious pieces. The round framed format is called 'en tondo' (in a circle).
Woman in Neopolitan Costume, ca. 1635, Massimo Stanzione (1585? - 1656?)
-The symbolism of a woman holding a rooster is difficult to decipher. A rooster is a symbol of jealousy and betrayal; hence the woman may have been jilted. Another interpretation is to assume the woman holds the rooster, tied at the legs, in preparation to kill and cook. The rooster may have sexual connotations; a rooster also symbolizes lust. The artist or patron may have likened the feathers to the woman's costume. Regardless of all the possibilities, the detail and color of the elaborate costume is spectacular.
-Stanzione was a well known painter in Naples, Italy during the 1600s. The sharp contrasts of light and dark were inspired by his admiration of Caravaggio. Caravaggio, an Italian painter, developed a style that used dramatic light effects. The mark on the lower left was given to Stanzione upon knighthood by two different popes.
Sleeping Venus, ca. 1638-39, Eustache Le Sueur, (1617 - 1655)
-Venus, the goddess of love, sleeps. She was caught having an affair with Mars, the god of War. Her husband, Vulcan, lame and unable to please her, was a blacksmith and is seen in the background building a net. Vulcan used the net to trap the lovers.
-Le Sueur never left Paris. In the late 1630s, his style was influenced by the Italian Mannerists, as seen by the unnatural pose of Venus and the pale skin color. The Mannerists considered these characteristics an attractive and ideal representation of the human body.
-See gallery 5 for other Mannerist paintings.
Landscape with Travellers, ca. 1640, Salvator Rosa (1615 - 1673)
-One of the artistic directions during the 1600s was a move toward Realism and a rejection of the rigidity of Classicism. This is one of the earliest Genre pictures showing a common family traveling through a wooded area. Rosa's Naturalistic style is shown in the accuracy and detail of the objects. For example, the clothing of the travelers is true to the period, the items carried by the travelers are meticulously drawn, and the depiction of trees, leaves, and rocks are realistically rendered. Rosa added a flare of drama by exposing the vulnerable travelers to a suspicious roadside group. The young man leading the family risks asking directions.
-In 1639, Rosa moved from Rome to Florence. This picture may have been drawn from that trip. Rosa was a Romantic at heart. He had his own theory of art and expressed his ideas regardless of the consequences. He was also a musician and stage actor.
Peasants Before Their House, 1641, Louis Le Nain (1600 - 48)
-The 1600s, the century known as the Baroque Period of art, was amazingly diverse. Painters of the previous century traditionally produced portraits and religious paintings. A trend towards realism allowed artists to stray from traditional and academic work. More importantly, the aristocracy and the Church were no longer the mainstays of artists. The rising middle class became an interest to artists as subjects, as well as buyers. Here, Le Nain's treatment of the lower class is straightforward and dignified. We see three generations of one family.
-A symmetrical composition, typical of Renaissance painting, was no longer a standard. Diagonal lines replaced vertical lines; color and pose became more natural.
-Louis and his two brothers collaborated on many paintings. Early in their career, they painted history and allegorical pictures, but Simon Vouet (also gallery 6) led the market in history and religious allegory. Louis and his bothers disliked competing with other Academy members, so they turned to pictures of peasant life. It is uncertain who purchased their work. Louis eventually became an Academy member during its foundation.
View of Tivoli, 1642-44, Claude Lorraine (1600 - 1682)
-One-third of French Baroque painting is landscape. In the 1600s, landscape paintings were first sold at shops and fairs. They became popular among nature lovers. Large estate holders found it fashionable to own landscapes of their property.
-Landscapes were not considered important works of art because they were thought to be simple imitations of nature and did not include human expression. History, religion and portraiture ranked higher. Landscapes were considered subjects artists toyed with in their spare time. Claude (and Poussin) thought otherwise. They believed nature was as worthy a subject as history, religion, or portraiture.
-Claude and Nicolas Poussin (also gallery 6) were the most popular landscape painters of the time. One artist described how Claude emphasized 'distant views' and 'variations of light'. Claude's landscapes are some of the first to aptly convey a specific time of day. Often he would work on two pictures of the same view, but at different times of day to capture the essence of atmospheric light.
-Claude spent most of his career in Italy, where he sold most of his work. His admiration of Roman history prompted him to add architecture and figures. He created great set design for his history and mythological pictures.
Dona Mariana of Austria, Queen of Spain, 1649, (in the manner of) Diego Velazquez (1599 - 1660)
-'In the manner of' suggests a painter (probably an assistant to Velazquez) followed Velazquez' techniques and style very closely.
-As a painter of the Spanish court, Velazquez was assigned to paint King Phillip IV's new bride. In this portrait, Baroque realism disregards the idealism seen in many Renaissance portraits. It reflects the true likeness and actual features of the young Queen rather than presenting an idealistic vision of her. Many portraits by Velazquez did not contain background objects; he wanted to focus attention on the figure without any distractions.
-Velaquez believed and practiced humanist philosophy, perhaps accounting for his realism.
Young Boy Singing, 1650, The Candlelight Master (1620 - ?), attributed to Theophile Bigot
-A young boy sings the words written on a page illuminated by a hidden candle. The painter cleverly hid the candle behind the sheet music. The candlelight creates dramatic lighting effects giving the picture its appeal.
-French painters were greatly influenced by the Italian painter Caravaggio. Caravaggio popularized a style of sharp contrasts between light and dark called tenebrism. His influence migrated by way of the trade routes that ran north from Italy through France to the Netherlands. Utrecht, a city in the Netherlands, formed a school of tenebrists. The school became popular and influential throughout Europe.
Landscape with Venus and Cupid, ca. 1651-54, Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi (1606 - 1680)
-Venus, the goddess of love, and her son cupid, the god of love, enjoy an afternoon in an idyllic classical setting. In this picture, the landscape dominates. Idyllic landscapes did not rely on naturalism or realism. Instead, artists constructed them to represent a perfect setting. This painting was done 'en tondo' (in a circle).
-Grimaldi had a reputation as a competent painter. He studied in Bologna, famous for the school established by the Carracci family, a group instrumental in the classic revival of the 1600s.
The Adoration of the Shepherds, ca. 1655, Valerio Castello (1624 - 1659)
-The Gospel According to Luke briefly describes how a group of shepherds honored and adored the newborn baby Jesus. Though Luke never described the setting, Castello's interpretation of the intimate earthly scene is an exaggerated celebration of angels and shepherds. He turned the manger into a marble palace and transformed the setting from a rural outback into a heavenly landscape.
-Castello made the most of the decorative exuberance that was the Baroque. His career only lasted 10 years, however he exhausted all his energy and movement on pictures like this. Many of his other pictures expressed a similar energy and exhibited loose flurries of brushstrokes.
Still Life with Violin, Ewer, and Bouquet of Flowers, 1657, Jacques-Samuel Bernard (1615 - 1687)
-Artists started painting still life pictures in the 1500s. The typical still life composition consisted of a display of inanimate objects on a table against a dark background. Objects were realistically painted, accurately drawn with sharp edges. A common theme was to depict objects that represented the five senses. In this picture, a violin represents sound, flowers - smell, carpet - touch, fruit - taste, and all things combined - sight. Objects were arranged so the eye would travel diagonally back and forth, as in this picture from the head of the violin to the top of the ewer (pitcher).
-Still lifes were considered a separate category of painting and painters handed the skill down from generation to generation. The traditional still life began in northern Europe around the time of the Reformation. Protestant painters, like Bernard, immigrated to France and were required to renounce their faith in order to produce non-religious pictures. However, some painters depicted objects with symbolic religious references. Ultimately, the aim was to accurately copy an object.
-In France, still life was, at first, considered a low form of art. It wasn't until the eighteenth century that still life was respected as a fine art.
Samson and the Honeycomb, 1657, Guercino (1591 - 1666)
-Samson (right), with long hair, in search of a wife, (Delilah, not shown) was approached by a lion in a vineyard. Samson tore the lion apart. He then ventured to Philistine and found Delilah. He returned to the vineyard to discover a beehive in the lion's carcass. He took the hive from the carcass and shared a honeycomb with his parents to celebrate the finding of a wife.
-Guercino was an illusionist painter. His technical skills, perspective, color and light made his paintings extremely realistic, particularly his wall and ceiling paintings. He was a student of the Carracci, the Italian school that revived the classicist style in the 1600s. As a student, he was an ardent anti-Caravaggist/illusionist. Then, toward the middle of his career, he moved to the Caravaggist/illusionist style (as seen here), then at the end of his career he moved back to a moderate classical style.
Saint John the Baptist Preaching, ca. 1665, Mattia Preti (1613 - 1699)
-Saint John was a prophet and a preacher. He baptized Jesus. John was typically painted holding a reed cross and wearing tattered furs to symbolize his retreat in the desert and hermetic lifestyle. The lamb symbolizes his reference to Jesus as a sacrificial 'lamb of God' (written on the scroll attached to his cross). In this version of Saint John, he is portrayed in dramatic fashion. Preti painted him as a robust muscular man, despite his ascetic life of poverty. We see him preaching as he points to a divine light. The Catholic Church encouraged these dramatically charged and emotional scenes to reinforce Catholic beliefs and to counter the northern reformation that sparked the Protestant movement.
-Baroque illusionist painters, like Preti, composed many pictures in the same scale and perspective as the viewer. Here, he created an illusion of being part of the picture, as if Saint John is preaching to us. We look up at Saint John, like the group painted below him. The picture was intended to be hung at this height so the viewer would feel like a member of the group to which John was preaching. The figures are life size and have natural movement to their poses, making the scene more realistic.
-Compositions of the Baroque period contain diagonals and triangular symmetry, which make the scene appear naturalistic.
-Preti studied under Guercino (also gallery 6), another illusionist painter. He gained a reputation in Venice as a skillful painter and was given commissions throughout Italy and Malta. Preti was known to have a violent personality and was constantly moving from city to city. His pictures have an energy similar to his personality. He reportedly died from a wound inflicted by a barber.
-For more pictures on the life of Saint John, see galleries 3, 4, and 5.
The Adoration of the Lamb, (Modella from the fresco in Il Gesu, Rome), ca. 1680, Giovanni Battista Gaulli called Il Baciccio (1639 - 1709)
-This image was taken from The New Testament's Revelation to John. The lamb represents the Second Coming of Christ. John described a vision of a great multitude of people from every nation before the throne of the lamb.
-The mid to late 1600s marks the peak of the Baroque Period. Part of what distinguishes Baroque is a highly decorative style. Baciccio's ornate style is further intensified by the extreme perspective that draws the viewer into the picture.
-A 'modella' is a small version of a finished picture, in this case, a ceiling fresco. The large scaled version, in Rome, was intended to create the illusion of a rising altar on which sits a lamb.
Jacob and Rachel at the Well, ca 1680, Johann Karl Loth (Carlotto) (1632 - 1698)
-According to the Book of Genesis, Jacob (lower left) escaped from his twin brother Esau's threats by leaving home. Jacob's mother sent him to her brother, Laben (far left). On his way, he came upon a group of women with a herd of sheep. Jacob removed a well cover to assist the women. He caught sight of the beautiful Rachel (right center). They eventually married. Jacob travailed through life, but always persevered. His life symbolizes the history of Israel, the name given to Jacob by God.
-The painter Carlotto was the son of a Munich court painter. He traveled to Rome and in 1656 settled in Venice, where he was inspired by warm golden color.
The Miracle of Saint Benedict, ca. 1700, (studio of) Pierre Subleyras (1699 - 1749)
-Saint Benedict lived between 480 and 547 and is seen here wearing a white habit. He was born in Italy and founded one of the oldest Christian orders. He believed in chastity, poverty, obedience, and manual labor. Benedict is remembered for his healing powers. This picture shows Saint Benedict, as a young man, reviving a small child. The man in the lower left gestures to the gravedigger on the right to wait, as they witness a miracle.
-The painter Subleyras was born in France. He left Paris at the age of 30 and moved to Rome where he lived the remainder of his life. It is difficult to determine how much involvement Subleyras had in this painting. It is likely he composed it, then his assistants copied it onto canvas and applied the paint.
Soldiers Feasting, ca. 1725, Alessandro Magnasco (1686 - 1749)
-Into the 1700s, Magnasco never abandoned the Baroque trend of tenebrism, the sharp contrasts between light and dark. He distinguished himself by using a technique of rapid, sketch-like, spontaneous brush strokes. His technique gave a rough and unfinished look, yet it created a tension and excitement that accentuated the light effects.
Descent from the Cross, ca. 1750, Giovanni Battista Pittoni (1687 - 1767)
-According to the Gospels Matthew, Mark, and Luke, this event took place in the evening. They also describe how Joseph of Arimathaea, a wealthy disciple (see 'Joseph of Arimathaea' by Pieter Coecke van Aelst in gallery 3), wrapped Christ's body in linen. The Gospel According to John did not describe the time of day; however, he too wrote that Joseph of Arimathaea took away the body of Christ.
-This is a black and white sketch for a final oil painting. In this highly theatrical version, John folds his hand and prays (right), Mary Magdalene swoons (lower left), the Virgin Mary falls with outstretched arms (center), Nicodemus holds Christ's shoulder (left), and Joseph of Arimathaea kneels and accepts the body (lower center). Light is concentrated on the body of Christ from an unknown divine source. The low-angled point of view gives a haunting view of the cross, which looms above.
-Pittoni was from the Venetian School and a contemporary of Tiepolo (Gallery 7). In the 1700s, the desire for grand religious interpretation was fading. Pittoni had to travel outside Italy to find work. Much of his work was criticized for overly bright colors and over-sentimentality.
The Merry Company, ca 1760, Gaspare Traversi (1732 - 1769)
-The theme of The Merry Company may have originated from the Biblical story of the prodigal son, a story about a young man who spent his inheritance on wine and women. In this picture, Traversi included the vices of drink, gambling, smoke, and prostitution. Due, in part, to the popularity of Realism, artists and patrons found the lifestyle of the lower class entertaining. Strongly lit objects against a dark background, a style called tenebrism, was a common style used in the 1600s to dramatize a scene.
-Traversi was famous for pictures of the middle and lower class. He usually depicted them in a psychological or comedic pose, unidealized and realistic. This version of 'The Merry Company' is full of memorable faces.
-An earlier version of 'The Merry Company' is in gallery 15, by Deric Hals.
The Fortune Teller, ca. 1760, Gaspare Traversi (1732 - 1769)
-Like the Merry Company (above), also by Traversi, The Fortune Teller was a popular theme during the 17th and 18th Century. Another version is in gallery 7, by Jean-Antoine Watteau and gallery 16, by Jacque-Louis David. This version features an elderly fortune teller performing a palm reading. Non-religious themes became popular in the late 1600s, as realism and the rising middle class became an integral part of European art and society. Traversi's pictures were usually purchased for their entertainment value. However, it is interesting to note its social value: the acceptance of the lower and middle class into artistic circles.

GALLERY 7 1700 Rococo France & Italy
-The death of Louis XIV resulted in a relaxation of strict standards. Many French painters produced pictures that were mostly decorative in nature.

Portrait of a Gentleman, 1680, Nicholas de Largilliere (1656 - 1746)
-During the early 1700s, Largilliere was one of the leading portrait painters in France. His clients were members of the rising middle and upper class. He also produced religious pictures, landscapes and still lifes.
-This Gentleman wears a full wig and an enormous neckpiece. Many of his portraits have landscaped backgrounds. In this picture, the background is a neutral color (perhaps as a cost savings to the sitter) and placed 'en tondo' (in a circle).
-For more Largilliere, see 'Portrait of a Gentleman' dated 1710, below.
Portrait of a Gentleman, 1710, Nicholas de Largilliere (1656 - 1746)
-In the 1700s, the rising middle and upper class (the bourgeoisie) became patrons of the arts. They could afford some of he best artists of the time. The Gentleman in this picture was probably wealthy, but not an aristocrat (not part of royalty). He is dressed in contemporary formal wear: frills on his chest, an expensive coat, a luxurious cape, and a full wig. The setting mocks the grandeur of the traditional court pictures of Anthony Van Dyck (Gallery 14) and Sir Peter Lely (Largilliere's teacher) by including drapery and a landscape in the background. The most interesting and puzzling feature of this picture is the right hand of the gentleman. Is he pointing or posing?
-Largilliere earned a decent living painting portraits of the wealthy class. Trained in Antwerp and England, he became an English court painter to the Stuarts, but anti-Catholic feelings forced him to return to Paris.
The Fortune Teller, ca. 1710, Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 - 1721)
-Watteau's version of The Fortune Teller is one of the first to integrate people of upper and lower classes. It represents the acceptance of the lower and middle class into the circle of artists. Fortune tellers were uneducated, superstitious, and poor; yet confident and proud. The upper class found their service entertaining. Watteau divided the picture with a wall. The fortune-teller remains on the outside; the bourgeois women welcome her, albeit with hesitation as one woman turns her back. A child stands between the two different classes and wonders what fortunes are in his future.
-Watteau was the first modern painter to become successful without depending on patronage from the church, the court, or the Academy. Although he did not attend formal art classes, his skills gained him entry into the salon, France's national art exhibit. His pictures did not contain religious icons. They were poetic and enchanting representations of the visible world.
-For more Watteau, see 'The Foursome', 1713, below.
The Foursome, ca 1713, Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 - 1721)
-This picture was part of a series called Les Jaloux (jealousy). It is a style called a Conversation Piece, a group portrait in small scale engaged in a common activity. In this picture, a group of theater actors are seen socializing offstage. Watteau offers a backstage view often unseen by the public. The faces of the actors are revealed. One of the actresses removes her mask. We are uncertain what is really happening between the actors. Love may be in the air, because of a statue of Cupid at right. The complexity of Watteau's pictures is extraordinary; interpretation is often difficult. The mystical aura attached to many of Watteau's pictures is also its attraction.
-Watteau was a fan of the theater, and is famous for his paintings of actors and scenes of the theater. He was also known for his 'fancy pictures' of love and enchantment. Watteau, like Louis Le Nain (gallery 6), engaged a class of people in ways never before seen.
-For more Watteau, see 'The Fortune Teller', above.
Diana and Endymion, 1726, Michel-Francois Dandre-Bardon (1700 - 1783)
-Endymion was a mortal shepherd boy. Selene, the moon goddess (played here by Diana) was infatuated by Endymion's beauty and visited him every night. Selene asked Zeus to give him eternal life so she could see him forever. Zeus agreed by putting Endymion into eternal sleep, thereby giving him eternal youth. Selene was in love with Endymion, as Cupid prepares to shoot his arrow. Diana, the virgin huntress, often plays Selene in this mythological story, because it's a virgin's role as long as Endymion sleeps.
-Dandre-Bardon was trained by the Vanloo family (also Gallery 7) and studied for a time in Italy. He admired Italian painters and was inspired by 1600 Baroque mythological painting.
Thalia, Muse of Comedy, 1739, Jean-Marc Nattier (1685 - 1766)
-One of the trends during the Rococo Period was to be idealized in a mythological setting. In this painting, Silvia Balletti (?) plays the part of Thalia, the Muse of Comedy. Thalia is typically seen with a mask, an attribute of the theater. There were nine muses, each representing a field of science, history and the arts. The muses were daughters of Jupiter.
-Nattier painted many scenes of fantasy. Decorative tendencies dominated the art world under Louis XV and Madam Pompadour. Rigid controls that were instituted during the reign of Louis XIV were relaxed under Louis XV. Nattier is mostly known for his portraits of high society women.
-For more Nattier, see 'Terpsichore, Muse of Music and Dance', 1739, below.
Terpsichore, Muse of Music and Dance, ca.1739, Jean-Marc Nattier (1685 - 1766)
-Unlike Thalia (above), the real life model is unknown. Terpsichore is the muse of Dance, music and lyric poetry. She is usually seen seated holding a small harp (lyre) in one hand and a pen in the other. In the background is a group of dancers.
-Terpsichore is one of nine muses representing the arts, sciences and history.
The Music Lesson (The Bird Cage), ca.1740 - 45, Pietro Longhi (1702 - 85)
-It is interesting to compare this picture with its neighbor, by Tiepolo (see below). The 1700s was a time of dramatic social change: The American and French Revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, the decline of Monarchial Rule, and the rise of republican governments. Longhi painted pictures depicting contemporary society; Teipolo was the last of the traditional Italian Grand Masters. Both painters were from Venice.
-What Longhi lacked in technique, he made up in human observation. His Venetian patrons enjoyed his quaint studies of social life. Others believed Longhi painted subtle satire aimed at his upper class buyers.
-Critics and art historians disagree whether Longhi painted pictures of realism or satire. On the surface, we see an innocent music lesson. However, on closer inspection, the music teacher leers at his student and appears to have other intentions besides music. The teacher plays a serenade while his student's cello is ignored and off to the side. The bird, trapped in a cage (upper right), may symbolize the predicament of the inexperienced student. The gentleman on the right looks out at us as if asking what is really going on here. The dog, on the left, a symbol of fidelity, appears to have a similar concern.
The Empire of Flora, ca 1743, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696 - 1770)
-Flora is the goddess of flowers. She is usually associated with sexual, erotic, and marital themes because of her reputation for spreading seeds. Her empire is a garden filled with flowers, trees, fountains and many other delights. Males are usually seen bowing and honoring her and trying to please her. She is sometimes depicted as spring, a time of rebirth and fertility. Here, she is accompanied by assistants and pulled in her chariot by putti, little men and messengers of profane love.
-Tiepolo was the most popular Italian painter of his generation. His vision was one of optimism. His scenes usually occur in bright daylight settings. Women played major roles in most of his pictures.
-Tiepolo was the last of the Grand Italian Masters in an age when realism and naturalism were gaining popularity. The Grand Manner was a style responsible for large ceiling and wall paintings commissioned by European Monarchs and the Catholic Church. Unfortunately, his traditional subjects and style were not popular in his hometown of Venice and he had to travel outside Italy to work. He found work in Germany, Austria and Spain. His work includes some of the most imaginative narrative painting that exists. Tiepolo invented an unseen world of mythological characters with uncanny certainty. His attention to detail was impeccable; observe the hub of the chariot wheels, the statuary, and the poses of the figures. Tiepolo ended an age that started with the great names of the early Renaissance.
The Pate, 1743, Jean-Baptiste Oudry (1686 - 1755)
-This is an example of a style called Trompe-l'oeil (fool the eye). It is Realism of such extreme detail, it can 'fool the eye'. Objects are accurately scaled and proportioned.
-As the title suggests, the objects shown in this picture include all the ingredients for pate.
-Oudry was a student of Largillierre (also Gallery 7). Largillierre recognized Oudry's unique talent and recommended Oudry try still life. He worked as a court painter for Louis XV, where he specialized in hunting pictures, in particular, the royal hounds. Oudry also painted for wealthy sportsmen.
Companions of Diana, 1745, Francois Boucher (1703 - 1770)
-Diana played several roles in Greek and Roman mythology. As the goddess of the earth, she protected life. As the virgin huntress, she provided food and nutrition. In this picture, she plays the huntress. After a hunt, she sleeps and is teased by a companion with a long stalk of grass. Freshly caught game birds (left) await preparation for eating.
-Boucher was perhaps the most popular French painter of the 1700s. He is surely the most celebrated decorative painter of all time. Most pictures by Boucher were of women. His wife often modeled for him, which explains why many of his women have similar features. He created a dream world where the mood was pleasant and the atmosphere was untroubled. His pictures were usually set out of doors on a sunny afternoon. This picture, prepared 'en tondo' (in a circle), was most likely purchased to decorate a small apartment.
-Denis Diderot, the leading art critic of the time, persistently criticized Boucher's work. He thought Boucher was wasting his talent. While Boucher believed art should bring pleasure, Diderot condemned artificiality and claimed art should contain messages of morality. Diderot may have prophesized the effects of excess and the advent of the French Revolution.
-Other pictures by Boucher are in gallery 7.
Bacchantes, ca. 1745, Francois Boucher (1703 - 1770)
-Bacchantes were women attracted to the cult of Bacchus, the god of wine and fertility. Bacchantes were often portrayed playing music, particularly the tambourine. They are rarely seen drinking and jugs of wine are often present (right).
-Most pictures by Boucher were of women. He created a dream world where the mood and atmosphere was pleasant and untroubled. His pictures were usually set out of doors and occurred during a sunny afternoon. This picture, prepared 'en tondo' (in a circle), was most likely purchased to decorate a small apartment.
-For more Boucher, see 'Companions of Diana', 1745, above.
Madame Boudrey as a Muse, 1752, (copy after) Jean-Marc Nattier (1685 - 1766)
-The muse Madame Boudrey is portraying is uncertain. She holds a pen in one hand and a tablet on her lap, which are the attributes of Calliope, the muse of epic poetry. There are nine muses in the background, each representing one of the arts, sciences and history. According to Greek mythology, the muses were daughters of Jupiter. The winged horse is Pegasus, which in this case represents fame.
Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, and Music, 1753, Carle Vanloo (1705 - 1765)
-In these pictures, Vanloo painted caricatures of four arts.
-Vanloo also painted portraits, religious allegory, history and mythological allegory. He became painter for Louis XV and was President of the French Academy of Art.
-Despite the cute appearance of these pictures, Vanloo may be the most controversial painter in this gallery. He was a very popular painter among the court and the academy when he was alive, yet most historians believe he lacked style and his work was mediocre, unimaginative, and technically inferior.
Vertumnus and Pomona, 1757, (studio of) Francois Boucher (1703 - 1770)
-Vertumnus, God of Fertility, was in love with Pomona, goddess of fruit and gardens. His first few attempts to attract her were unsuccessful. He decided to dress as a woman to gain her attention. Vertumnus (in red) eventually confessed his scheme. Pomona was flattered and they fell in love. Cupid (upper right) is about to drop his arrow of love.
-Boucher is the artist most associated with the Rococo Period. Much of his popularity derived from his patroness, Madam Pompadour, mistress to King Louis XV. She fostered the arts and chose Boucher to paint several portraits of her. Boucher was a student of Watteau (also Gallery 7) and admired his decorative qualities. He also admired the imaginative work of Teipolo (also Gallery 7). His aim was not to paint heroic images; he believed art need not carry a moral, religious, or serious message. Mythology was a favorite theme of Boucher; he created a fantasy world that was adorned with decoration.
-For more Boucher, see 'Companions of Diana', 1745, also in gallery 7.
The Concert, 1760, Pietro Longhi (1702 - 1785)
-See 'The Music Lesson', 1740, also by Longhi (also Gallery 7)
-As mentioned in 'The Music Lesson', Longhi represents the new age of art in the 1700s. He was one of the first to produce social realist work. His pictures contained subtle satire aimed at the rising middleclass. Longhi saw the same hypocritical acts among the middle and upper class as the aristocracy. Interestingly, his middle and upper class patrons saw his pictures as quaint Conversation Pieces.
-In 'The Concert", ask yourself, is the mandolin player concentrating on music or is he more interested in serenading the woman in the gold dress? His eyes seem to wander in her direction. The gentleman standing behind her looks at us as if asking the same question.
The Good Mother, ca 1762-63, Jean Honore Fragonard (1732 - 1806)
-In this picture, Fragonard painted a tender moment between mother and child. The Mother and Child theme originated from Mary and the Child Jesus. Fragonard admired and borrowed the warm golden tones and strong directional lighting from Rembrandt. Like Boucher (also Gallery 7), Fragonard painted decorative subjects; women were often his main characters, mood was pleasant, and atmosphere was trouble free. Unlike Boucher, many of Fragonard's patrons were middle and upper class.
-Fragonard maintained his independence from the court, the church, and the academy throughout most of his career. Fragonard's popularity derived from his draftsmanship. The academy recognized him more for his landscape drawings than his paintings.
-For more Fragonard, see 'The Useless Resistance', 1770, also in gallery 7.
Virgin and Child, ca 1765 - 70, Francois Boucher (1703 - 1770)
-In this eighteenth century version of the Virgin and Child, Boucher remained true to his decorative style, even as he approached the end of his career. The treatment of the figures and clothing is soft and colorful. Here, Boucher intimately placed the two figures en tondo (in a circle) and omitted a background. The child's face is positioned directly in the center. His eyes focus on a rose held in his right hand. The rose has two meanings; without thorns, it represents the virgin and the color red symbolizes the blood of Christ, a reference to His crucifixion. The virgin, meanwhile, looks down at her hands, occupied in thought, as if knowing the fate of her child.
-Boucher was known more for his ornate and decorative mythological fantasies. See other pictures by Boucher in Gallery 7: 'Companions of Diana', 1745 and 'Vertumnus and Pomona', 1757.
Fox in the Chicken Yard, 1766, Jean-Baptiste Huet, the Elder or Younger
-Huet specialized in animal pictures and landscapes. The Fox in the Chicken Yard may be interpreted in several ways. Allegorically, the fox may be seen as an inept, fumbling Louis XV caught in an act of disgrace. Literally, it is a powerful composition. Huet placed the three main characters - the fox, rooster, and hen along the center axis. The expressive faces of the animals are extraordinary, from the fierce growl of the fox to the fear of the hen to the spooked peahen, at left.
-At the age of twenty, Huet worked with Boucher (also gallery 7) to produce decorative art. His talent for painting animals and landscape shaped his career and in 1794, he became painter to the King.
Charles-Antoine de la Roche-Aymon, Archbishop of Reims, ca 1769, (studio of) Alexandre Roslin (1718 - 1793)
-Roslin was born in Sweden and was popular throughout northern Europe. He was a member of the French Academy. His patronage came from several courts in Europe. His popularity derived mainly from his longevity; he outlived many of his contemporaries. His work is more efficient than evoking, as seen by the wonderful detail and texture of the Archbishops clothing and the likeness of the facial features. The expression and the stare of the Archbishop are a bit self conscious and posed.
-The credit goes to 'the studio' of Roslin, so the extent of his contribution is uncertain.
The Useless Resistance, ca 1770, Jean Honore Fragonard (1732 - 1806)
-This small-scaled picture shows two playful figures skillfully composed and dramatically lit. It's a wonderful combination of fantasy and reality. Fragonard sold most of his pictures to middle and upper class patrons who enjoyed unserious subjects. He was one of the first independent artists that did not depend on commissions from the court, church or the academy.
-This picture, as does his 'Education of the Virgin', 1773, (also in gallery 7) demonstrates his talent as a draftsman. His touches of color and careful brush control contribute to the success and appeal of his pictures. Fragonard's popularity faded in his late years as the decorative Rococo style ended. The late 1700s saw a serious moralistic tone inclined towards politics and revolution.
Etienne Jeaurat, 1771, (attributed to) Etienne Aubry (1745 - 1781)
-Like Aubry, Jeaurat was a genre painter famous for social realist street scenes. Aubry also painted portraits with astonishing naturalism. Here, the attribution to Aubry captures Jeauat in a candid and relaxed pose.
Education of the Virgin, ca. 1773, Jean Honore Fragonard (1732 - 1806)
-According to The Golden Legend, angels taught Mary to read. Versions of this subject sometimes show Mary's mother, Anne, teaching her to read. In this version, it appears Anne is the teacher. An unknown light source creates a divine glow. The setting is uncertain.
-This picture shows Fragonard's talent as a draftsman. Notice the sketch-like quality, the brush control, and linear characteristics of the figures and the clothing.
-For more Fragonard, see 'The Good Mother', 1762 and 'The Useless Resistance', 1770, also in gallery 7.
Still Life with Plums and a Lemon, 1778, Anne Vallayer-Coster (1744 - 1818)
-Coster's attention to detail and texture is similar to a Dutch still life, as is the symbolism. For example, the dying leaves on the table (left) symbolize mortality. The knife and the lemon placed precariously at the edge of the table represent the fragility of life. The stack of plums along side a full glass of water is a sign of French prosperity.
-Coster was a skillful technician. She was also a respected portrait painter, popular among the upper class. Towards the end of the 1700s, when the Neo-Classic period took hold, she lost much of her popularity. Themes of morality and social values became popular as politics and revolution dominated French culture. Coster was less political than her contemporary, Vigee Le Brun (Gallery 16) and remained in France during the revolution.
Louis-Antoine de Bourbon, Duc of Angouleme, 1785, Joseph Boze (1744 - 1825)
-The Duc was part of the last generation of the Ancient Regime, France's Royal Family. By the turn of the century, the new French Republic became the dominant force in politics. The Duc died in 1844 and may have fought in North America during the Indian Wars.
-During the 1700s, portraiture placed an emphasis on the likeness of features and attention to costume. The young Duc is seen in full uniform and wig. The Duc's pose and slight turn of the head was Boze's attempt at naturalism. Boze was a portraitist and miniaturist. He was also a court painter for Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette and painted war pictures for the court.
Bacchante, 1785, (copy after) Elisabeth Louise Vigee Le Brun (1755 - 1842)
-A Bacchante was a woman who was attracted to the cult of Bacchus, the god of wine and fertility. Bacchantes were often portrayed playing music, particularly a tambourine. It is rare to see no jugs of wine in the background, as was usually the case when a Bacchante was pictured.
-Le Brun was one of Europe's most successful women painters. She studied under her father. At age 24, Le Brun painted a portrait of Marie Antoinette and they became friends. She became a member of the academy. During the French Revolution she was a loyalist sympathizer. She left France and traveled throughout Europe and Russia, successfully painting portraits.
-See gallery 16 for 'Hyacinthe Roland', 1791, by Le Brun.
Portrait of a Miniaturist, late 18th Century, Anonymous
-A miniaturist is an artist that produces small-scale art. Miniatures are usually highly detailed portraits ranging from one to twelve inches in height. During the 18th Century, miniature work was a popular novelty. This picture is a fascinating study of concentration. The artist chose an interesting point of view of the miniaturist, his foreshortened head, and his tools of the trade.

GALLERY 13 1700 and 1800 England
England's tradition of portraiture began when Henry VIII was excommunicated from the Catholic Church. He did not condone religious pictures; hence portraiture and landscape became the mainstay in England.

Alicia Maria Carpenter, Countess of Egremont, 1745, Arthur Devis (1711 - 1787)
-This example of a miniature portrait was a specialty of Devis. His patrons were usually rural northerners (north of London) who were fond of Devis' formality, stiffness, and attention to detail. The small scale made the portraits affordable.
-Devis was a Jacobite sympathizer, a conservative Protestant cause with most of its support in the provincial English countryside. He was England's most popular and successful artist of the miniature genre.
-For more Devis, see 'Earl of Tyrconnel', below.
Earl of Tyrconnel, 1745, Arthur Devis (1711 - 1787)
-Devis wanted to portray rural England as a polite and respectable society. Many of his pictures were unusually formal, a style his customers desired. He lived among the rural society who enjoyed the small-scaled portraits and conversation pieces (group pictures) that made Devis famous.
-For more Devis, see 'Alicia Maria' above.
Samuel Kilderbee, ca 1755, Thomas Gainsborough (1727 - 1788)
-Samuel Kilderbee was a friend of Thomas Gainsborough. Gainsborough's best portraits were those of his friends and those with whom he felt comfortable. He earned a decent living painting portraits and did not have to rely on the court or the academy for commissions. He relied on portraiture to earn a living, in spite of his love for landscape (as seen in his careful rendering and dramatic setting of the background). This life-size portrait was painted during the 1750's, his 'Ipswich Years' (taken from a region in England), a period critics and historians consider his best.
-Gainsborough was mostly self taught. He did not follow the rigid rules and formality of the Academy. He apprenticed under several painters and draftsmen. He eventually became a member of the Academy and a painter for the court. However, he separated himself from the Academy, led by Jashua Reynolds (also Gallery 13), despite their common political affiliation as a Loyalist and supporter of the crown.
-Other pictures by Gainsborough are in gallery 13.
The Rev. William Turner, 1758 (?), Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723 - 1792)
-Reynolds believed in the classic tradition of western art. He used Greek and Roman statues as models. He believed in ideal form. He argued that simply copying the likeness of a sitter was to 'lose more than gain.' During the years 1760 - 90, Reynolds was Britain's leading portraitist. However, the court, ruled by King George III, preferred Ganisborough (also gallery 13) and Ramsay.
-See Reynolds' 'Anne of Townsend', 1780, also in Gallery 13.
Major General Sir William Draper, ca. 1765, Thomas Gainsborough (1727 - 1788)
-Unlike his academic contemporaries, Gainsborough tried a new simplified style that instilled a likeness of the sitter and did not idealize. This style was used in many of is his portraits and appear to lack finish. One can even detect visible brushstrokes. His patrons considered it a bold style and preferred it to his formal style.
Anne, Viscountess, Afterward Marchioness of Townsend, ca 1779-80, Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723 - 1792)
-Viscount Townsend was one of three daughters. Reynolds placed her in a full length, life size classical pose taken from ancient Greek and Roman statues. She leans on a pedestal that contains a relief carving of the Judgment of Paris. Reynolds cleverly put his own twist on the story of Paris. Traditionally, Paris (far left) awards a golden apple to the most beautiful of three goddesses. Here, only two goddesses appear on the carving. Reynolds' intended the viewer to include the Viscount as the third contestant. He insisted she wear a low-cut, full length, dress in the style of the ancients. An exception is her hair, which is a modern style. In 1780, Reynolds paid a visit to Flanders and was influenced by the warm golden colors of Peter Paul Rubens (Gallery 14).
-Reynolds was the leading portrait painter in London. He was a classicist and believed the ancient Greeks and Romans set the standard for western art. He also believed they perfected the ideal figure in the form of statues, which he used as models. Moreover, he believed in the usefulness of an academy and handing down tradition from generation to generation. His aim was to infuse a European tradition into British art. Reynolds was elected the founding President of the British Royal Academy.
Mrs. Fitzherbert, 1784, Thomas Gainsborough (1727 - 1788)
-Mrs. Fitzherbert was reputed to be a mistress of an English politician. The affair was kept secret due to her being Catholic. The politician wooed her by threatening suicide (he once stabbed himself in the leg). They eventually fled to France and were married.
-Gainsborough became an academy member despite not having any formal training. He was a rival of Joshua Reynolds, the academy president (also gallery 13). He painted life-size portraits to earn a decent living, preferring to paint portraits of people he knew. Gainsborough did not believe in idealizing his models. He used an informal technique that allowed for visible brush strokes. The style was considered bold and many buyers desired this unfinished look.
Landscape with Country Carts, ca 1784-85, Thomas Gainsborough (1727 - 1788)
-Gainsborough is best known for his portraits. He earned a good living painting them. However, he desired to be a landscape painter and practiced landscapes in his spare time. He visited several collectors in England who owned Dutch landscapes and particularly admired those of Jacob Ruisdel (Gallery 15). At the start of his career, he was able to sell conversation pieces that combined landscape with figures. In the late 1700s, landscapes were not popular in England and did not sell except to those who wanted paintings of their estate or house. Gainsborough gave away many of his landscapes. He gave this one to his good friend Samuel Kilderbee, whose portrait (dated 1757) also hangs in this gallery.
The Dead Soldier, 1789, Joseph Wright of Derby (1734 - 1797)
-During the period known as the Romantic Era (1750 - 1850), poets greatly influenced the imagery of painters. Wright, inspired by the poem 'The Country Justice' by John Langhorne, painted The Dead Soldier. Romanticism in paintin